Hakikat manusia, perbedaan antara manusia dan hewan

Sebelumnya kita telah membahas mengenai manusia memiliki nalar logika yang membuat manusia harus meninjau dari sisi epistomologis, ontologis, estetika dan etika. Secara umum keempat sisi tersebut menjadikan sebuah perbedaan antara manusia dengan makhluk ciptaan tuhan lainnya terutama perbedaan antara manusia dengan hewan.

Ya, tidak bisa dipungkiri bahwa manusia dari pandangan ilmu biologi menempatkan manusia dalam kingdom animalia dengan spesies mamalia. Ada beberapa ahli mengatakan bahwa manusia merupakan modern homo sapiens. Ada juga yang beranggapan bahwa manusia merupakan peralihan dari manusia purba sebelumnya, sebut saja seperti megantropus erectus, pitecantropus. Ada pula yang menyebutkan bahwa manusia berasal dari mamalia primata bernama kera. Pertanyaannya setujukah anda dengan pendapat tersebut?

Tentunya tidak ada yang setuku dengan hal tersebut. Ada beberapa yang mungkin dapat disetujui, itupun dalam rangka untuk memudahkan ilmu pengetahuan dalam menganalisis manusia secara epistomologis dan ontologisnya. Tetapi, menariknya mengapa timbul artikel ini karena sekarang ini banyak manusia hanya berpikir bahwa perbedaan kita dengan hewan jelas berbeda karena kita manusia diberikan akal dan pikiran saja. Sebuah hasil akhir yang kurang memuaskan. Mengapa? Hewan juga sekarang ini dilatih sehingga mampu berpikir. Kesimpulannya hewan juga mampu berpikir. Lantas apa perbedaannya. Namun sebelum masuk ke inti pembahasan alangkah mudahnya kita berbicara penciptaan manusia (dari segi islam saja).

Dalam islam, manusia merupakan ciptaan allah swt yang paling sempurna diantara makhluk ciptaan lainnya. Mengapa demikian? Hal tersebut karena manusia memiliki dua esensi yang tidak dimiliki oleh makhluk ciptaan allah swt lainnya. Yaitu basyariah dan ruhaniyah yang berarti jasad tubuh dan ruh.

Dari hal tersebut sangat berbeda sekali dengan ciptaan allah lainnya seperti malaikat, jin, syaitan dan benda mati. Manusia diciptakan tidak bersamaan dengan hewan atau tumbuhan. Justru manusia diciptakan lain waktu dan menurut saya secara logika rasional bahwa bumi dan isinya diciptakan terlebih dahulu kemudian manusia pertama (adam as) diciptakan. Alquran surah al baqarah 30.

Seiring berjalannya waktu, kehidupan manusia berlanjut sampai zaman modern ini. Sebuah zaman yang mengalami proses demoralisasi. Hukum rimba berjalan dimana mana. Tentunya manusia yang dahulunya tercipta dan diketahui secara hakikat, kini tidak diketahui apa secara mendasar perbedaan manusia dengan hewan. Dalam bukunya, jujun suriasumantri mengatakan bahwa, ada 3 perbedaan yang mendasar mengenai perbedaan manusia dengan hewan yaitu:

Berpikir secara nalar logika. Akal dan pikiran tidak akan berjalan dan berkembang jika tidak didasari oleh nalar logika. Nalar logika menunjukkan bahwa kemampuan berpikir manusia dapat menciptakan inovasi baru dalam suatu permasalahan kehidupan. Untuk urusan makan, manusia menciptakan alat berupa sendok dan garpu. Bagaimana dengan hewan? Anda sudah dapat menyimpulkan bahwa mau bagaimanapun primata itu melihat makanan, dia tidak mampu untuk menciptakan sendok dari dedaunan.

Wisdom atau kebijaksanaan. Dengan adanya konsep pemikiran mengenai adanya keinginan untuk berkembang menuntut setiap manusia untuk berpikir dab menentukan keputusannya secara bijaksana. Bijaksanakah keputusan seekor burung meninggalkan anaknya yang baru menetas?

Free will atau kehendak bebas atau iradat. Ya, dalam hal ini banyak orang mengambil contoh berupa adanya sebuah konsep bunuh diri. Sedangkan hewan tidak. Itu memang tepat, salah satu contohnya lagi mengenai iradat ini berupa ketika manusia telah mencapai masa dewasa dalam kondisi apapun dia akan melakukan perkawinan. Lain halnya dengan hewan, walaupun dalam keadaan dewasa, jika memang bukan musimnya (hukum alam) untuk kawin, secantik apapun lawan jenis hewan tersebut, tidak akan terjadi perkawinan.

Dari ketiga alasan tersebutlah maka sangat jelas sekali bahwa terdapat letak perbedaan manusia dengan hewan yang signifikan. Ada juga yang beranggapan mengenai volume otak. Tetapi apabila didepannya terdapat hewan yang volume otaknya lebih besar dari manusia, apakah dia disebut manusia? Semoga artikel ini bermanfaat bagi kita semua.

Bentuk permukaan sel jamur

Sel yang terdapat dalam ragi dan jamur merupakan bentuk sel yang memiliki struktur dimana disekelilingnya terbungkus sitoplasma dan terdiri dari membrane plasma, periplasma, dan dinding cell tambahan berupa komponen struktural ekstra sel seperti fimbria dan kapsul. Dinding sel menunjukkan adanya pembentukan eksoskeleton yang dinamis dimana eksoskeleton ini berfungsi untuk melindungi protoplast jamur dari apapun yang ada dilingkungan luar dan hal tersebut juga menegaskan searah dengan pertumbuhan, kekuatan selular, bentuk dan sifat-sifat yang mempengaruhi jamur tersebut. Disamping itu jamur yang memiliki benang-benang fibril, susunan dan pengaturan dinding sel secara mendalam memiliki hubungan dengan proses pertumbuhan apical.

Demikian hal tersebut tampak pada setiap jamur, sebagai contoh pada jamur Neurospora Crassa, dimana ukuran dinding sel tipis kira-kira mendekati 50 nano meter di bagian puncak tetapi menjadi lebih tebal kira-kira mendekati 125 nanometer pada ujung sekitar 250 mikrometer.

Komponen membrane plasma dari sel jamur diselubungi  oleh dua lapisan pospolipid yang diselingi dengan protein berbentuk bundar yang mengatur masuk dan keluarnya nutrisi dari metabolism dan menunjukkan adanya lapisan selektif untuk proses translokasi jamur.

Ergosterol merupakan sterol yang paling banyak ditemukan pada membrane jamur, ini memperlihatkan bahwa dalam membrane dari hewan ditemukan kolesterol sedangkan pada tumbuhan ditemukan pitosterol. Adanya Perbedaan ini dimanfaaktkan pada saat penggunaan secara khusus beberapa agent anti-jamur yang digunakan untuk mengobati beberapa infeksi yang disebabkan oleh jamur, dan ini juga dapat digunakan sebagai indicator pengujian terhadap ukuran pertumbuhan jamur.

The unique of "Nefertiti" Space Spider Insect

Nefertari and acknowledged as Nefertari Merytmut was lone of the Great Royal Wives (or principal wives) of Ramesses the Great. Nefertari process 'Beautiful Companion' and Meritmut process 'Beloved of [the Goddess] Mut'. She is lone of the preeminent acknowledged Egyptian queens, after that to Cleopatra, Nefertiti and Hatshepsut. Her plentifully decorated tomb, QV66, is the leading and as a rule spectacular in the Valley of the Queens. Ramesses and constructed a temple in support of her by Abu Simbel after that to his colossal tombstone at this time. Nefertari initially appears as the wife of Ramesses II in legitimate scenes in the initially time of Ramesses II. Popular the tomb of Nebwenenef, Nefertari is depicted behind her spouse as he elevates Nebwenenef to the location of High Priests of Amun in a visit to Abydos. Nefertari and appears in an event after that to a time 1 stela. She is depicted shaking two sistra previously Taweret, Thoth and Nut.

Nefertari is a notable presence in the scenes from Luxor and Karnak. Popular an event from Luxor, Nefertari appears leading the royal children. Another event shows Nefertari by the Festival of the Mast of Amun-Min-Kamephis. The king and the queen are understood to worship in the inexperienced temple and are made known management the Erection of the Mast previously Amen-Re attended by standard bearers. But in this section we are not talking about the queen, but there are special name for insects that scientist namely same with the queen name.

The Insect called Nefertiti didn't spin a mess like Charlotte; her kind by no means possibly will. But the red-back jumping spider earned a classy nickname, Spidernaut, as well as a hogwash by the widespread Insect Zoo of the National Museum of History of Washington in support of her out-of-this-world exploits.
Her move to the nation's assets in tardy November followed a 100-day mission on the train the International Space Station. There Nefertiti demonstrated so as to, like humans, her eight-legged species can adapt to the microgravity of legroom, at that moment transition back to life on Earth.

On Dec. 3 the museum bare so as to Nefertiti had died of natural causes. She lived in support of 10 months. Her species, Phidippus johnsoni, regularly lives in support of lone time.

Amr Mohammed of Alexandria, Egypt, wished-for Neferiti's tour to the 250-mile-high station. The spider's tour is inspiring yet to come generations of legroom explorers and all the scientists. One of them is Mohammed which gave a proposal and had two winning entries in the 2011 large-scale YouTube SpaceLab contest. Additional than 2,000 students, ages 14 to 18, competed in support of the opportunity to dash an research to the legroom station based on two-minute YouTube videos explaining their examine proposals.

Mohammed, at this moment 19, suggested so as to leaping insects like that always known as the Zebra Jumping Spider or in Latin Called Salticus scenicus, besides that it also like Phiddipus johnsoni, a red-back jumping variety, might enjoy impenetrability hunting in legroom previously they adapted to microgravity. Both of the insects are usual with grass, brush and woodlands on the western area in United States. Spiders like Nefertiti hunt, not by rotary elaborate webs, but by vaulting towards their prey of less significant insects. They trail silk-like structures spun with their spinnerets and tacked to the leaves and logs from which they leap to wait as safety tethers.

" The investigation is to observations the parts of the foot strike as an insect that is so amazing, it makes the interest that has been rarely heard" Amr told cost Nye, the Science gentleman, in a YouTube Spacelab documentary on the apprentice competition.

So Nefertiti traveled to the station on July 21 on the train an unpiloted HTV-3 payload carrier launched research on these insects when in Tanegashima, Japan. Insects are placed in various chamber which area so as to incorporate a spider den, as well as an isolated compartment in support of her legroom prey, fruit flies.
NASA astronaut and Expedition 33 commander Sunita Williams reserved tabs on Nefertiti while they were both in orbit. By activating small plungers, she possibly will periodically issue waves of fruit flies into the spider's den.

Nefertiti dined well, leaping towards the fruit flies, injecting them with a poison previously feeding -- presently as she on the surface of the earth. Along with that there are remnants of insect nets tethers were evident far and wide.

"I axiom her stalking a fruit dash," Williams explained in the in the form of Papers seek. "It is amazing and prove to us in researching as the poor little fruit, she was looking by it and getting real close. All of an abrupt, she jumped totally on him. It was amazing. So, I think the spiders agreed adapted to legroom."

Nefertiti made history with her return to Earth, as well. She descended on the train the initially SpaceX Commercial Resupply Services mission, splashing down on Oct. 28 in the placatory Ocean. The spidernaut was indifferent from the Dragon capsule and returned to BioServe Space Technologies of Boulder, Colo., an accessory on the spider investigation research.

Kirk Johnson, the National Museum of Natural History's director, brought Nefertiti to Washington. She was showed to the known on Nov. 29. She was position on exhibit along with the fatherland she lived in while in orbit.

Nefertari is made known by the introductory revelry by Abu Simbel in time 24. Her daughter Meritamen is depicted taking part in place of her tend in approximately of the scenes. Nefertari can well enjoy been in failing strength by this thing. After her death she was buried in tomb QV66 in the Valley of the Queens.

A General Explanation about Periodic Table

When you learn the exact sciences, especially in the fields of science such as physics and chemistry as well as engineering sciences and the application of science of course, you will be faced with the problem of how everything around us is formed, nothing is causing it all to form. However, my point here does not mean taking the principle of causality that leads to God the creator, but rather speaks to the flow of natural phenomena. 

Once upon a time, people saw the phenomena of nature occurring is a natural power that can not be followed. However, the development of science and technology has been growing rapidly teaches us how all the good things that are objects or events that are providing a scientific perspective to analysis and identify it. In 1869, when a chemical scientist from Russia published a journal about the elements is the reason why the world was created. Dmitri Mendeleev which is a chemical scientist who publishes word form Periodic Table of Elements is the reference for every student in the world to create new technologies that can solve every human problem on earth. 

Periodic Table of Elements is a method of classifying the elements that exist in this world, especially in the planet that describes the characteristics or attributes of the elements complete with electron configuration, atomic radius, atomic number indicates the number of protons and electrons, nature of the radioactivity of an element, electronegativity and others. This method helps students, especially among students and scientists in developing the technologies of the past, present and future.

In this method the elements of the periodic system there are rules about the period and group of the periodic system of elements due to the systematic preparation in a table. The system has the form:

Group. Often called a group or family in the periodic table of elements is a vertical column of elements in the periodic table. Naming class system is often used in teaching the properties of elements such as the number of outer electrons of each element. Here are some commonly used naming groups of scientists in classifying these elements:

• alkali metal
• Alkaline earth metal
• Boron Group
• Carbon Group
• Nitrogen Group
• Oxygen Group
• Halogen Group
• Noble Gas Group
• Transition Metal

Period. It is an arrangement of elements in the periodic system of elements vertically from left to right stating atomic radii and electronegativity properties and stability elements. Arrangement is called the period commonly used is the first period, the second, third as well lanthanides and actinida period.

 

7 temperature scale that you must know

Celsius (symbol °C), also known as centigrade, is a scale and unit of measurement for temperature. It is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744), who developed a similar temperature scale. The degree Celsius (°C) can refer to a specific temperature on the Celsius scale as well as a unit to indicate a temperature interval, a difference between two temperatures or an uncertainty. The unit was known until 1948 as "centigrade" from the Latin centum translated as 100 and gradus translated as "steps".

From 1743 until 1954, 0 °C was defined as the freezing point of water and 100 °C was defined as the boiling point of water, both at a pressure of one standard atmosphere with mercury being the working material. Although these defining correlations are commonly taught in schools today, by international agreement the unit "degree Celsius" and the Celsius scale are currently defined by two different temperatures: absolute zero, and the triple point of VSMOW (specially purified water). This definition also precisely relates the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale, which defines the SI base unit of thermodynamic temperature with symbol K. Absolute zero, the lowest temperature possible at which matter reaches minimum entropy, is defined as being precisely 0 K and -273.15 °C. The temperature of the triple point of water is defined as precisely 273.16 K and 0.01 °C.

Fahrenheit (symbol °F) is a temperature scale based on one proposed in 1724 by, and named after, the physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736).[1] Within this scale, the freezing of water into ice is defined at 32 degrees, while the boiling point of water is defined to be 212 degrees - on Fahrenheit's original scale the freezing point of brine was zero degrees.

The Fahrenheit scale was replaced by the Celsius scale in most countries during the mid to late 20th century, though Canada retains it as a supplementary scale that can be used alongside Celsius. Fahrenheit remains the official scale of the United States, Cayman Islands, Palau and Belize. The Rankine temperature scale was based upon the Fahrenheit temperature scale, with its zero representing absolute zero instead.

On the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) and the boiling point 212 °F (at standard atmospheric pressure). Absolute zero is defined as -273.15 °C or -459.67 °F. The Rankine temperature scale was created to use degree intervals the same size as those of the Fahrenheit scale, such that a temperature difference of one degree Rankine (1 R) is equal to a difference of 1 °F, except that absolute zero is 0 R – the same way that the Kelvin temperature scale matches the Celsius scale, except that absolute zero is 0 K.

The Kelvin is a unit of measurement for temperature. It is one of the seven base units in the International System of Units (SI) and is assigned the unit symbol K.

The Kelvin scale is an absolute, thermodynamic temperature scale using as its null point absolute zero, the temperature at which all thermal motion ceases in the classical description of thermodynamics. The kelvin is defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water (exactly 0.01 °C or 32.018 °F). 

Rankine is a thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale named after the Glasgow University engineer and physicist William John Macquorn Rankine, who proposed it in 1859. (The Kelvin scale was first proposed in 1848).

The symbol for degrees Rankine is °R (or °Ra if necessary to distinguish it from the Rømer and Réaumur scales). Zero on both the Kelvin and Rankine scales is absolute zero, but the Rankine degree is defined as equal to one degree Fahrenheit, rather than the one degree Celsius used by the Kelvin scale. A temperature of -459.67 °F is exactly equal to 0 °R.

The Newton scale is a temperature scale devised by Isaac Newton around 1700. Applying his mind to the problem of heat, he elaborated a first qualitative temperature scale, comprising about twenty reference points ranging from "cold air in winter" to "glowing coals in the kitchen fire". This approach was rather crude and problematic, so Newton quickly became dissatisfied with it. He knew that most substances expand when heated, so he took a container of linseed oil and measured its change of volume against his reference points. He found that the volume of linseed oil grew by 7.25% when heated from the temperature of melting snow to that of boiling water.

After a while, he defined the "zeroth degree of heat" as melting snow and "33 degrees of heat" as boiling water. His scale is thus a precursor of the Celsius scale, being defined by the same temperature references. Indeed it is likely that Celsius knew about the Newton scale when he invented his. Newton called his instrument a "thermometer".

The Réaumur scale (°Ré, °Re, °R), also known as the "octogesimal division", is a temperature scale in which the freezing and boiling points of water are set to 0 and 80 degrees respectively. The scale is named after René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur, who first proposed something similar in 1730. Réaumur’s thermometer contained diluted alcohol and was constructed on the principle of taking the freezing point of water as 0°, and graduating the tube into degrees each of which was one-thousandth of the volume contained by the bulb and tube up to the zero mark. 

He suggested that the quality of alcohol employed be such that it began boiling at 80 °Ré — that is, when it had expanded in volume by 8%. He chose alcohol instead of mercury on the grounds that it expanded more visibly, but this posed problems: his original thermometers were very bulky, and the low boiling point of alcohol made them unsuitable for many applications. Instrument-makers generally chose different liquids, and then used 80 °Ré to signify the boiling point of water, causing much confusion.

Rømer is a temperature scale named after the Danish astronomer Ole Christensen Rømer, who proposed it in 1701.

In this scale, the zero was initially set using freezing brine. The boiling point of water was defined as 60 degrees. Rømer then saw that the freezing point of pure water was roughly one eighth of the way (about 7.5 degrees) between these two points, so he redefined the lower fixed point to be the freezing point of water at precisely 7.5 degrees. This did not greatly change the scale but made it easier to calibrate by defining it by reference to pure water. Thus the unit of this scale, a Rømer degree, is 100/52.5 = 40/21 of a kelvin (or of a Celsius degree). The symbol is sometimes given as °R, but since that is also sometimes used for the Rankine scale, the other symbol °Rø is to be preferred. The name should not be confused with Réaumur.

There are a few different between the all the scale temperature, here the comparative scale

Click for Larger Picture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celcius
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahrenheit
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rankine_scale
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton_scale
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Réaumur_scale
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rømer_scale
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature_conversion_formulas

Factors that affect the speed of transport of the Plant

Water that is transported by the xylem vessels used for photosynthesis and transpiration. Speed ​​of transport is governed by transpiration at the leaf stomata. The rate of transpiration is affected by environmental conditions such as humidity, temperature, light, wind, and soil water content.

Moisture. Naturally there is water vapor in the air expressed by moisture. The release of water from the air spaces in the leaves was also affected by the level of water in the surrounding vegetation. If the humidity around the plant height, the diffusion of water from the air space in plants will be slow. Conversely, if the humidity around the plants is low (dry), the diffusion of water from the air spaces in the plant will go faster.

Temperature. The increase in temperature is followed by a rise in temperature of the leaf cells. This situation will accelerate the evaporation of water from the leaf mesophyll cells into the intercellular cavities resulting in an increase in the rate of transpiration. At a temperature of 30 degrees Celsius, the leaves can be transpire for three times faster than at 20 degrees Celsius.

Light. If the light intensity increases, the plant transpiration increases. This happens not because the light directly affects transpiration, but because the light cause stomata open so the plant loses water.

Wind. In general, winds tend to increase the rate of transpiration as wind swept the accumulated water vapor near the surface. Similarly, wind can cause the humid air entrainment around the leaf to another place so that the moist air is replaced by air is not humid. This situation can be further accelerated the process of transpiration. Even a gentle breeze will cause transpiration faster than without wind.

Groundwater. If the water content in the soil enough so that the soil water potential is higher than in the cells of plants, the flow of water in the wood or xylem vessels and the rate of transpiration increases. In addition, water levels in the surrounding soil where plants grow will affect the speed of the process of absorption by the roots. If the water content of the soil is very little, then the process will be slow absorption or unbalanced compared transpiration rate power. If water uptake is not balanced by the rate of transpiration, the turgor pressure is reduced. Decreased turgor pressure causes the closing of stomata, so that transpiration is smaller than the absorption of water. Stomatal closure reduces the rate of transpiration. However, when the stomata are open, transpiration is high so it must be balanced with the availability of water in the soil around the plant.

The theory of evolution and explanation

The theory of evolution states with the purpose of life on earth is bent as a findings of prospect and emerged by itself from natural conditions. This theory is not a logical law or reality with the purpose of has been proven. Behind the mask of learning, this theory is a materialist vista of life crammed into society by Darwinists. The basics of this theory - which has been disproved by logical evidence in all fields - are all ways to influence and propaganda, consisting of deception, deception, contradiction, deception and illusion conjuring tricks.

Anticipated the theory of evolution as an imaginary hypothesis in the context of nineteenth-century systematic understanding is still weak, which to this period has not been supported by systematic test or discovery at all. Instead, all methods so as to ambition to demonstrate the validity of this theory truly nail clippings with proving its invalidity.

The theory of evolution does not meeting on the origin of the creation of living things, especially by hazard. Discuss the origin of life theories is the theory of abiogenesis contemporary. It's funny if you be looking for to refute the theory of evolution, but perform not know the difference evolution (origin of species) with the contemporary theory of abiogenesis (origin of life). The theory of evolution is additionally not a materialist propaganda. If pro not chatting on the role of God in it and in that case claimed materialist propaganda, all the tori technical materialist propaganda ought to additionally be considered as well. And again, present is refusal 'scientific evidence' to the theory of evolution. Conversely, it is not technical writings, is complete of dishonesty and propaganda and the complete of manipulation.

It is faithful to the theory of evolution was coined in the 19th century, which is comparatively excluding than the impart. But many technical theories and discoveries generated even big. And to theory proved improper will be aborted, while a proven theory will carry on, and growing with the progress of erudition. The theory of evolution has survived and industrial more as it is immediately through the same process.

Now, the various kindling of science such as paleontology. Genetics, biochemistry and molecular biology declare proved with the aim of living beings can not be formed by accidental or organize itself from natural conditions. Living cells, so the precise humankind permit, is the nearly everyone development construct forever imaginary by man. Modern science has revealed with the aim of the opening living cell has a construct and a range of development and interrelated systems, which are much more development than a full-size city. Complex construct such as this can just composition if both of its constituent parts appear all together and in an already fully functional. If not, the construct will not be expedient, and the longer it will be damaged and destroyed. There's rebuff way all the components in the cell was residential by accidental in a million years, such as the theory of evolution.

However, advocates of materialist attitude is unwilling to bow to the information of creation used for various ideological reasons. This is due to the materialization and development of the fill living in the affection of noble character who trained the devoted religion to mankind through the gifts of God are not the expectations of the materialists. People who grow up with no the moral and spiritual standards ​​among these are preferred, as they can manipulate such a society used for the benefit of their own worldly. That is why, the materialists try to remain to impose the theory of evolution - which contains the fib with the purpose of man was not bent, but it appears the end result of good fortune and evolved from animals - and, by all process, try to defend the theory of evolution in order to stay alive. The materialists leave collective be aware of and wisdom, and to defend this nonsense next to all opportunity, even though systematic evidence unmistakably has destroyed the theory of evolution and confirms the information of creation.

The truth has been proved so as to it is not on if the initially living cell - or even a single lone of the millions of protein molecules in the cell - can appear up to opportunity. This is not simply revealed through various experiments and observations, but plus through a arithmetical calculation of probabilities. In vogue other expressions, evolution fall on the initially step: So as to in explaining the appearance of the initially living cell.

The methods commonly used in determining the elements in the polymer

When a compound is connected with the same compound is formed of a continuous chain that has certain characteristics. In a simple sense that I explain what is called the polymer. As has been mentioned in books written in general polymer as a polymer composed of long strands of each monomer binding to the monomer. The length of the string or chain can reach hundreds or even thousands of interconnected monomer. In its website, wikipedia writing A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating structural units. These sub-units are typically connected by covalent chemical bonds. Although the term polymer is sometimes taken to refer to plastics, it actually encompasses a large class of compounds comprising both natural and synthetic materials with a wide variety of properties.

Image from Wikipedia

In the current technological developments, many experts in physics, chemistry and polymer material that is the future of materials that are easy to come by. So great expectation addressed to polymeric materials to you, I am curious as well as a lot of people. No wonder that many experts in physics, chemistry, and material has been doing various kinds of research in the field of polymer so that the polymer at the present time this is a category of commercial polymers, such as call it petroleum, plastic gutter pipe PVC, textile polymers, polymer electronics and various other types.

However, in this article we will discuss what is called the polymer but rather how the methods are generally made by people to determine the constituent elements of the polymer. Of course as we know, the formation of a polymer or polymer synthesis / polymerization reactions of polycondensation and polymerization, which is then divided into a variety of methods. Because there are so-called synthetic polymer which constituent elements must exist and how to identify these polymers. The following methods are commonly used by experts that I took from the book by Mr. Anton J. Hartomo:

Classical methods. By performing the cremation-gray, fusion, acid digest or acidification and digest the bomb to the polymer.

Image from Google.com/imghp

By using the cremation-gray method consists of several ways:

• Cremation without catalytic substances. The process of cremation is done by burning the polymer in a platinum crucible with controlled conditions (as polymer), dissolved in an aqueous reagent, and then analyzed by spectrophotometry. This method is cumbersome and time consuming. Effectiveness of these elements can be different after that. Analysis of the alkali metal is more critical than on the transition metal catalyst.
• Cremation with catalytic substances. The process of cremation is required where the elements are going to be analyzed may be lost when the process is carried out. For example, copper can be reduced and attached to the crucible wall. that is why it was added a solution of inorganic salts, for example magnesium nitrate. When the bulb, the said elements in a matrix of magnesium oxide awake so easily dissolved in a suitable acid and analyzed. The addition of inorganic salts and acids taken in the presence of organic solvent (alcohol) as appropriate.
• At low temperatures the cremation furnace. The process is conducted in a furnace with air oxygen is activated by a cloud of electric charge or with ultraviolet light. Active oxygen to burn the polymer, and the risk of loss of the element being analyzed is smaller because the temperature is lower. Examples of use in the determination of rare metals in the polymer PP, PS and so on.

Then the fusion method can be performed using sodium carbonate, sodium bisulfate, and sodium peroxide. Of fusion with sodium carbonate is very good for the polymer which when in the incandescent-issued gas / vapor acids, such as PVC. Steam trap can be determined with a solid base in the reagent. Ash residue is dissolved in nitric acid, diluted acetone, potentiometric titration using standard silver nitrate.  

Digest method (Kjehldahl) acid. By using this method in addition to the determination of organic nitrogen, more or less the method is also used except in special cases. While oxygen to the combustion vessel used in the analysis of polymers such as the determination of sulfur in the polyolefin, determining chlorine in the rubber khlorobutil and PVC, phosphorus in polyolefins. 

Instrumental Methods of Engineering Analysis. This method is used to analyze the elements in the polymer consist of non-faulty techniques such as X-ray fluorescence and neutron activation analysis, as well as destructive techniques (sample described with specific reagents) such as atomic absorption spectrometry, emission Spectrograph, flame photometry, polarography, and etc..

• X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. Analysis instrument was used for the determination of micro amounts of metal or non metal; also for the content of metals such as cadmium selenide pigments in polyolefins. The advantage lies in the technique that does not destroy the sample, making the specimen is easy, fast and the measurement of content of chemical elements do not depend on the state of incorporation. However, drawbacks include the excitation of many disorders other elements in the matrix polymer. This method is often applied to the determination of industrial elements chlorine, bromine, titanium, aluminum, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and vanadium on a hot plate of felt-PP and PE.
• Neutron activation analysis. This analysis technique can determine the various elements such as chlorine in polyolefins, metals in PMMA, the total oxygen in the copolymer and the PE-vinyl acetate PE-ethyl acrylate as well as the polyolefin. This method is superior because it is very sensitive and hassle free. Disadvantage, must be made in nuclear reactors. However, the results are very good and reliable.
• Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). Often used for metal determination. Samples prepared in the form of an appropriate solution. Certain elements (As, Sb, Hg, Se, Sn) after the polymer has the digest, transformed into a hybrid form of gas using SnCl2 reagent or sodium borohydride.
• Electron probe microanalysis. For this method is used to determine the metal inclusions in the polymer film and sheet. Samples were fired with a narrow beam of X-ray and electron scattering a certain frequency beyond scrutiny. Scattering image corresponding atomic number elements. X-ray beam emitted is detected and enumerated with a special tool or using the detector.

By using the above methods can be determined qualitatively or quantitatively, or in both the qualitative and quantitative elements of the polymer. The goal of science can be used both in order to identify the type of polymer that is not known or commercially in order to control the process. Both of the above techniques of classical technique and modern techniques that use instruments. For so this article, may be beneficial to us all. 

 

Reference:

Penuntun Analisis Polimer Aktual work by Anton J. Hartomo. Penerbit Andi Offset Yogyakarta.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer  

 

Several factors that affect plant growth and development

Plants (flora) is a unit in a living ecosystem. Plants are also part of what is called a living creature. Of course, as living beings, plants have characteristics similar to other living creatures. As with the growth and development. The process of growth and development experienced by plants in order to process a higher level. Of course, the process is also influenced by several factors relating directly or indirectly. Here are some of the processes that affect plant growth and development:

Internal factors

In influencing the development and growth in plants, internal factors related to genetic and physiological factors include the plant. Both of these factors can be described in more deeply because it contains a variety of circumstances.

• Genetic factors.  Growth and development process starts from the germination process. This process begins with water uptake (inhibition). Water is then absorbed into the body resulting in dissolution of pieces of food that is in pieces of the institution. Besides dissolving food, absorb water also serves as a substance-induced lawyer for hydrolytic enzymes. After that the enzyme will be controlled by the genes of plants. Germination process also requires that the metabolic processes of plants can live. This metabolic process requiring metabolic enzymes support that aims to regulate the metabolic rate of growth and development of plants that can be set to be optimal. And it's all arranged by the genes of plants.
• Physiologcal factors. Of origin of the word, physiological factors are factors derived from the functional processes at the cellular level in plants. All activities conducted by plant cells also affect the process of development and growth in plants. Growth and development will involve a variety of hormones and vitamins. Hormones and vitamins have specific functions at each level of growth and development. Hormones that affect growth and development are as follows Hormone auxin, gibberellin, ethylene, cytokinins, absisat acid, Kalin, traumalin acid, antokalin, filokalin, rhyzokalin and kaukokalin, addition of hormones, vitamins also affect growth and development. Examples are vitamin riboflavin, ascorbic acid, thiamine, pyridoxine, and nicotinic acid. Vitamins serve as components that are capable of activating the enzyme.

External factors 

External factors have an influence equal to the internal factors in the growth and development. In the process, external factors are factors that are outside the parts of a plant, an existing environment around the plant. These external factors that affect plant growth and development.

• Temperature. When it comes to temperature, it will not be separated from the process of photosynthesis, respiration, and evaporation in plants. Temperature affects the water content in plants that is one thing that is important in the growth and development. Temperature also affects the performance of enzymes that exist in plants. In general, temperatures will damage important parts of the plant when the temperature is high, so if too low will make the important parts do not work optimally or even not working. Optimal temperatures in plants is also different. So, temperature is the most important factor in the first category of external factors.
• Sunshine. Sun light affects green plants because sunlight will determine the photosynthesis process of plants. Photosynthesis is the fundamental process in plants to produce energy that will be used as the initial capital in the growth and development. Besides, in the process of photosynthesis, sunlight also affect plant growth physically. Plants that grow in the dark will grow faster but with the condition of pale, thin, and its leaves do not grow because of the hormone auxin is not spread and are not optimal.
• Water, pH, and oxygen. Water serves to determine the rate of photosynthesis, as the universal solvent in the process of growth and development, to determine the transport of nutrients in the soil and distribute the results to all parts of plant photosynthesis. Factor pH (or acidity) that directly affect the state of soil acidity. Minerals and nutrients derived from land, when the soil has a high acidity, it is mostly absorbed acidic compounds. So that the acid compound is absorbed so high, it is very disrupting the growth and development. Oxygen is a limiting factor in any organism. These conditions make the organisms need oxygen. Parts of plant roots require good aeration to get oxygen. Good aeration to improve root respiration process to circulate nutrients in the soil to the leaves.
• Nutrition. Plants need nutrients for its survival. Nutrients needed in large quantities such as carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, potassium, calcium, phosphorus and magnesium. These elements are referred to as the mean macronutrient nutrients needed by plants in large numbers. In contrast, elements such as chlorine, iron, boron, manganese, zinc, copper, and molybdenum merupakn micronutrient elements, which means the elements needed in small amounts. Nutrients needed for plants not deficient, that is to grow and develop imperfectly.